Laurence Wolff gave me permission to forward a copy of a posting he made to another list. I thought it might be interesting...
In 1974 I was asked by USAID to summarize the large research program undertaken by Wilbur Schramm and others at Stanford University on instructional technology. I recently reviewed the conclusions of that summary in the context of the current situation and have developed the following matrix of definitive conclusions for 1974 and tentative conclusions for 1996. I hope others can suggest revisions in the 1996 conclusions. In any event, as you can see there are many unanswered questions suggesting a major research agenda.
| Learning | 1974 Students usually learned as much from an instructional technology as from classroom teaching (this applied to cognitive skills only). | 1996 This continues to be true, but there are now elements of curriculum which can be taught more effectively by technologythan by conventional instruciton. |
| 1974 There was no general learning superiority for one type of technology over another. | 1996 This still appears to be true. However it may be that interactive technologies (e.g., Internet, CD-ROM) will be found to be more effective than traditional radio and television. | |
| 1974 The addition of another channel of instruction, for example print plus radio, usually improved instruction. | 1996 Still true. | |
| 1974 Motivated students learned from any instructional technology if it was competently used and adapted to their needs. | 1996 Still true. | |
| Costs of Different Technologies | 1974 The costs of instructional television (ITV ranged from $.015 to $.15 per student served. The lower limit could be reached if a million students were located in a relatively small region. The costs of instructional radio were about one fifthe the costs of television. | 1996 Hardware and communication costs have declined significantly and will continue to decline. Software costs continue to be significant. Radio continues to be the lowest cost technology. |
| 1974 Computer aided instruction (CAI) was very expensive. | 1996 CAI is much less expensive than before but costs are still significant. | |
| 1996 A third media channel (Internet), in addition to radio and televsion, is now available with its own particular cost structure. | ||
| Technology for Curriculum and Pedagogical Reform and for Enriching Curriculum | 1974 The high visibility of an instructional technology, when it was used to provide a significant portion of curriculum content, made it a strong catalyst for curriculum and pedagogical reform. | 1996 This continues to be true. Instructional technology can play a major role in achieving curriculum reform objectives such as increased higher order cognitive skills, increased capacity for cooperative and creative problem solving, better understanding of science and technology in daily life, increased social responsibility, better language skills, etc. Also, with the new technologies, there is an opportunity to make the teacher less of a provider of knowledge and more a manager of learning, increasingly focusing for example on motivation and on remediation. |
| 1974 To be successful, technology programs required strong support from the top, acceptance and understanding by teachers, focused usage, integration into the overall system of instruction, and phased introduction. | 1996 These steps continue to be fundamental to ensure success of technology projects. | |
| 1974 No direct cost savings through technology were identified. | 1996 While start-up costs are significant, there is growing evidence that total costs can be reduced through increased learning, reduced repetition, and possibly higher student teacher ratios. | |
| 1974 There were few demonstrable effects on learning when technolgy was used to "enrich" curriculum wich was teacher provided. | 1996 This is probably also the case now. | |
| Technology for Extending the School (e.g., distance education, radio and television, correspondence, etc.) | 1974 Students usually learned as much from distance programs as from convention instruction. | 1996 This remains true. In addition, there may now be elements of curriculum which can be taught more effectively by tecnology than by conventional instruction. |
| 1974 These programs cost less than conventional classroom instruction. | 1996 Cost savings through distance education should be even greater than in the past. | |
| 1974 Distance education programs offered opportunities which would normally not be available because of more opportunities than before for distance education. | 1996 The increased number of instructional technology options as well as lower cost means that there are even less cost, logistics, or staffing problems. | |
| Conclusions | 1974 The most important need for developing countries was to conceptualize their eucational objectives and problems and then to choose the most cost-effective system--which could include various technologies--to achieve their goals and deal with their problems. | 1996 With the rush to introduce technology throughout and the increased number of options, the need to define educational objectives and problems before selecting technologies becomes even more important than before. |
| 1974 No single technology could solve all problems, and variation in learning was more dependent on how a technology was managed, organized, and presented in context rather than which one was used. | 1996 This is still fundamental. | |
| 1974 Inexpensive technologies, especially radio, were as cost-effective as more expensive technologies. | 1996 Particularly in rural areas radio continues to be an important technology option. |