1. The authors are all involved in educational systems in United States. Our discussions of feminism and diversity primarily reflect the situations and research of feminist and multicultural pedagogies in the United States. In light of these limitations, we ask list members to share information on diversity and feminism as promoted and/or practiced in their countries.

2. It is extremely difficult to write on issues of gender and diversity without some generalizations. One of the tenets of multicultural education, however, is the matter of not identifying an issue as one group's "deficit" based on another's cultural frame of reference.

3. Some feminists include discussions of racism, classism, sexism, ableism, heterosexism, and ageism. Multicultural education tends to focus primarily on race and class issues. In a short discussion paper, we are unable to adequately address all issues pertinent to feminism, multiculturalism, and diversity; therefore, we had to make some choices. For this discussion paper, we focus primarily on race and gender, but do not diminish needs to focus on other social justice issues. For excellent discussions of curriculum designs to address racism, sexism, heterosexism, antisemitism, ableism, and classism, refer to the text, Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice (Adams, Bell & Griffin, 1997).

Feminist pedagogy and multicultural education explicate the need for social change—a quest for social change beyond political correctness (PC), beyond "tolerance," beyond cultural sensitivity workshops. In critical feminist and multicultural educational settings, the focus is on the learning of subordinated, or marginalized, groups of students. Worldviews, educational goals, curriculum, learning styles, and instructional methods are all areas of investigation. Asante (1991) writes, "When it comes to educating African American children, the American educational system does not need a tune-up, it needs an overhaul" (p. 179). For educational/instructional technologists, knowledge of feminist and multicultural education approaches can provide new frameworks for theory construction and practice.

To group those who seek access and/or revision of systems under the umbrella term feminists, overlooks important distinctions among the various feminist theories. "Just as there is no one woman's experience, there is no one feminist research method or perspective" (Joyappa & Martin, 1996, p. 6). One's feminist stance emerges from their unique interactions with their world and changes the way one looks at and interacts with the world, research topics and subjects, instruction, and technology. We summarize a few of the more traditional feminist theories (liberal, radical, socialist, and Marxist feminisms) and a few of the newer feminist theories that have emerged from critiques of traditional feminist theories. Black feminist thought, womanism, Chicana feminism, Asian feminism, and others argue that racial and class issues must also be at the center, along with gender issues.

In general, liberal feminists argue for access to current educational structures, whereas radical feminists argue that men dominate women through violence, the educational system is flawed, and entirely new systems are needed. Radical feminists usually work from a basis of studying violence as a means of oppression and control. In media studies and IT, they might analyze the violence in movies, software, video games, and so forth.

Socialist-feminist theory has been used to designate any feminist theory that offers a structural critique of capitalism. (e.g., Carol Anne Stabile, 1992). Socialist and Marxist feminists argue that educational systems operate on a competitive/capitalistic basis which marginalizes some groups of people, especially the economic lower-class and minorities, and often silences women. It is from the Socialist-feminist arena that the discourse sometimes known as "artifactualism" has emerged. Donna Haraway offers a socialist feminist critique of postmodernist capitalism that emphasizes the future social and imaginative impact of information theory and modern biology. Rather than espousing a "pronature" stance, as ecofeminism does, Alaimo (1994) tells us that "Haraway's theories of 'artifactualism' and the cyborg break down the divisions between nature and culture and even nature and technology, thus radically destabilizing the entire concept of 'nature'." Artifactualism engages nature as a construct, not something existing "out there" in some pure form. Ian Barns (1991) describes Haraway's underlying metaphor of the cyborg as

The postmodernism and poststructural feminists positions attempt to speak for all women and systems of oppressions, but various groups are articulating their unique feminist positions in relation to specific and individual oppressions, obstacles and daily experiences. Gore (1993) proposes that poststructuralist feminist theory recognizes individualism and fosters "phenomenological, personal accounts of multiplicity and contradiction" (p. 49).

Black feminist thought and Womanism are newly elaborated theories that indicate we cannot "add up" oppressions, but should consider overarching systems of oppression. Brewer (1992) writes that the common tendency to add oppressions is not appropriate in feminist approaches: An "additive model. . .adding race + class + gender is not a satisfactory analytical tool" (p. 68). Patricia Hill Collins (1997) notes that the "term 'black feminism' disrupts the racism inherent in presenting feminism as a for-whites-only ideology and political movement. Inserting the adjective 'black' challenges the assumed whiteness of feminism and disrupts the false universal of this term for both white and black women" (p. 13).

Chicana feminism, Mexican feminism, and popular feminism are feminist approaches expressed by Chicanas. Delgado Bernal (1998) notes that "'Chicana' is a cultural and political identity composed of multiple layers and is often an identity of resistance that we consciously adopt later in life." Fuentes (1998) uses the terms Mexican American, Chicano(a), and Hispanic interchangeably in her work, and indicates that "all are intended to provide a descriptive identification applying to Americans of Mexican descent" (p. 6). Fuentes' dissertation focused on the unique social location of Tejana women, "American women of Mexican descent born or raised in the State of Texas and not those originally from Mexico" (p. 6). Delgado Bernal (1998) draws on "Black, Native American, and Chicana feminists in an attempt to articulate a Chicana feminist epistemology in educational research that reflects my history and that of the women I write about, a unique history that arises from the social, political, and cultural conditions of Chicanas." The implications of the emerging Chicana feminist epistemology are extensive for curriculum and instruction. Delgado Bernal writes, "Epistemological concerns in schools are inseparable from cultural hegemonic domination in educational research. . . In education, what is taught, how it is taught, who is taught, and whose fault it is when what is taught is not learned are often manifestations of what is considered the legitimate body of knowledge. For Chicanas, this is not merely an epistemological issue, but one of power, ethics, politics, and survival."

Critical feminist educational theorists promote arguments that the educational structures are flawed in their overemphasis on progress as the highest value and the competition to attain it (de Vaney, 1998). It is contended that the emphasis on quality (quality according to Euro-centric standards), in our current century has served to marginalize groups of students, especially women, minorities, and lower-income persons (Hart, 1992). Hart argues for a redesign of the American hierarchy of values. Rather than maintain progress at the top of a hierarchy, she argues for the equal valuing of knowledge, human intelligence, critical thinking, and creativity. In a criticism of technology, Hart indicates that the handling of knowledge in the workplace leads to control and further marginalization for certain groups whose work has become low-skilled and poorly paid.

Feminist pedagogies have developed in response to feminist claims that classrooms are patriarchal, competitive, and hierarchical. Feminist educators emphasize that education should foster social activities that integrate cooperative learning projects, rather than individual activities that foster competition and division in the classroom. Nicholson, Gelpi, and Young (1998) performed an ethnographic inquiry with first-graders to identify collaborative activities surrounding composing on the computer. In this study, they used the popular software KidPix to compose stories, paint, and draw. They identified a demonstrated inclination for more collaborative activity among female student groups and more competitive activity among male groups and mixed-gender groups. In her qualitative research of girls' interactions with computers, Hanor (1998) provides further evidence for a female preference for collaborative activities while using the computers.

Huff and Cooper (1987) addressed instructional design issues when they asked educators to design a software program "to teach 7th grade pupils to use commas correctly. Some were asked to design a program for 7th grade girls, others to design a program for 7th grade boys, and others to design a program for 7th grade students" [italics added] (p. 522). When the educators were assigned to write for students, they wrote programs more similar to the programs that were written for boys. Huff and Cooper summarize that, "student programs are the most game-like, boy programs are in the middle, and girls programs are on the 'learning tool' side of the function" (p. 529). They express concern that the educators "may have been simply using 'male' as the default value of 'student'" (p. 529).

What types of software are designed for CAI support, for example, in colleges and corporate training centers when the designer knows the audience as students or learners or in distance education when the designer knows the audience again as students or perhaps as adults? While gender was the central variable in the above studies, how might the designs vary when considering race and class? In her application of Noddings' work of a feminist caring ethic to instructional design, Damarin (1994) suggests that when we do not care for those we do not know, especially in multicultural classrooms, educational technologists and instructional designers may offer caring instruction to only those learners who are known.

Suzanne Damarin (1998) writes about the problems and issues in developing electronic classrooms and offers conflicting views of decisions to include technology in classrooms. She reviews two competing visions of technology in schools: firstly, as a tool to "construct both products and knowledge" or secondly, as a way to individualize instruction that results in tutorial systems that are often "meaningless, boring, and controlling" (p. 13). Lower income schools usually end up with the latter. She writes of students marginalized by race, ethnicity, and poverty and analyzes the political importance of student access to quality technological opportunities.

Damarin (1991) provides guidelines for developing educational software from a feminist standpoint. Her work specifically incorporates a feminist analysis of software design in the science and mathematics instruction. She writes, "The 'shoot-em-up games' of the video arcade have been adopted and adapted for the purposes of drill and practice on disconnected and decontextualized bits of knowledge" (p. 115). She develops principles for instructional materials that incorporate feminist values in science instruction; some of these values are compassion and empathy, sense of reverence for life, harmony with "nature," a holistic view, and gender as an important variable (p. 113).

Van Zoonen (1992) points out that in a society where femininity in women is highly valued, it can be considered a rational and positive choice, rather than a sign of backwardness, for a woman to reject (computer) technology. Ecofeminism is predominantly technophobic, rejecting the modern (and postmodern) in favor of a temporally distant and holistic "natural" world, a "source of abundance and a model for communal living" linked to the female capacity for creation and nourishment of life (Stabile, 1992).

The technological determinism of the seventies began to give way to postmodern theories in the eighties characterized by a systemic model, the cybernetics systems theory. Donna Haraway (1989) describes it as the "informatics of domination", or "a social reality in which the cultural dominance of capital is globalized and intensified through the appropriation of new communication technologies and biotechnologies" (Barns, 1991).

Donna Haraway hoped to illustrate through her Cyborg Manifesto (1989a) that humanity has already evolved into creatures both human and technological (i.e., cyborgs) and that this can be a natural and positive path to take. Barns (1991) interprets this as a fundamental transmutation in human identity currently taking place: from stable, integrated, historically grounded "Western self" to that of the cyborg, which Haraway calls "a kind of dissembled and re-assembled post-modern collective and personal self." Artifactualism embraces rather than resists the emergence of a cyborg culture; Haraway advises women to exploit its subversive possibilities. The Cyborg Manifesto "was written to find political direction in the 1980s in the face of the odd techno-organic, humanoid hybrids 'we' seemed to have become worldwide" (Haraway, 1991). Haraway writes, "If feminists and allied cultural radicals are to have any chance to set the terms for the politics of technoscience, I believe we must transform the despised metaphors of both organic and technological vision to foreground specific positioning, multiple mediation, partial perspective, and therefore a possible allegory for antiracist feminist scientific and political knowledge" (1991).

In an interview with Haraway, Andrew Ross notes that Haraway's position can be described as a philosophy of partialism, "a postmodern approach which stands in opposition to the New Age Holism which promises completion and transcendence" (Penley & Ross, 1991). Penley states that one of Haraway's aims is to help women overcome their culturally induced technophobia by "getting readers excited about specific areas of science that have heavily involved women, like primatology; by frequently citing utopian science fiction narratives by women like Joanna Russ and Octavia Butler that offer empowering visions of a new relation to gender, race, nature, and technology; and by imaginatively demonstrating, in the Cyborg Manifesto, that we are already cyborgs..." (Penley, 1991)

Stabile (1992) writes that "the technophobic approach so dear to many cultural feminists thus proposes that a rejection of technology is commensurate with a rejection of patriarchy and that this strategy represents humankind's (or sometimes exclusively womankind's) sole chance for survival." Because the technomania of many postmodern theorists (e.g., Baudrillard, Lyotard, Deleuze, Guattari, Ian Chambers) seems blind to the elitist outcomes of the transformations they endorsed, Stabile and many other feminists do not appear to embrace this shift wholeheartedly.

Stacy Alaimo (1994) has attempted to "map out a feminist ecological position within and between the cyborg and ecofeminist poles." She derived a stance from cultural studies that emphasizes intervention and poststructuralist, post-Marxist theories: "On the one hand, Mother Earth and ecofeminist glorifications of nature play into the pockets of patriarchal capitalism; on the other hand, cyborgs forsake alliances between women and nature and may bolster a destructive technophilia." Alaimo indicates that, "articulating women and nature as agents in a mutual struggle, however, could strengthen environmental feminism's political impetus while opposing the appropriation of nature as passive resource." "In the spirit of encouraging futures other than those currently being sold to us," Stabile attempts to point out the limitations of technophobia (as found in ecofeminism) and technomania (as found in artifactualism) in the production of "adequate strategies for theorizing the grid, sprawl, hyperspace, or cyberspace known as postmodernity" on terrains ranging from feminist literary criticism to popular culture. She notes that several feminists (Evelyn Fox Keller, Sandra Hardy [sic, Harding], Helen Longino) have encouraged a more productive peace with technoscience, or a reconciliation; at the same time, they steadfastly hold forth historical lessons of how technology has been used to oppress those who do not possess it or have access to it. This constitutes an uneasy and wary alliance, constantly subject to examination and reevaluation. Unconditional peace risks losing sight of technology's characteristic proclivity toward abuse, leaving conditions ripe for repression (unintentional or otherwise) to reseed itself.

Worldviews are an important part of understanding multicultural education. For illustration of the necessity to understand the impact of worldviews on education, we present an Afrocentric worldview. Schiele (1994) indicates that an "Afrocentric model views the structure of reality from a perspective of interdependency" (p. 152). The epistemological point of view focuses on an "affective way of obtaining knowledge" whereas the axiological attribute is primarily "the value of interpersonal relationships" (p. 153). Neville and Cha-Jua (1998) describe eight components of a pedagogical model, Kufundisha, a pedagogy for Black Studies. Their model calls for an educator to understand his/her teaching philosophy, learning styles, and various methods of instruction. They describe instructional methods that are focused on an "interactive style derived from the Black cultural traditions and modeled after African (American) communication styles" (p. 451).

"We are always on shaky ground when considering cultural differences. It is vital to examine how culture may influence learning and achievement in school, but the danger lies in overgeneralizing its effects" (Nieto, 2000, p. 140). To illustrate the "shaky ground," we discuss one attribute of learning styles, the characteristics of field dependence (more recently, this is referred to as field sensitivity) and field independence. Bennett (1995) indicates that learners with a more field dependent style tend to have a more global view, are more sensitive with "highly developed social skills," and are extrinsically motivated. Field independent learners may be better able to perceive discrete parts, are more individualistic, and are more intrinsically motivated. Shade (1997) summarizes that African-Americans tend to be more field dependent whereas Euro-centric students tend to be more field independent. Bennett (1995) also indicates that "Mexican Americans tend to be relatively field dependent or global in orientation" (p. 168).

Field dependent learners tend to favor a "spectator approach" to learning and field independent learners tend to favor "inquiry" approaches (Bennett, 1995). Is it possible that a particular theory of instruction, such as Reigeluth's Elaboration Theory, is appropriate for designing instruction for some minority groups that have a more field dependent learning style? If some African-Americans tend to be more social and relational in learning styles (field dependent), they may learn more productively with interactive, collaborative situations, but not be as successful with inquiry/Socratic learning situations and with competitive educational methods. Euro-centric students may learn more successfully in inquiry learning situations and individual-based situations, but have more difficulty with collaborative situations.

In her case study of computer use, Chisholm (1996) discusses problems of computer access, but goes beyond that to note learning style differences among a culturally diverse group of young students. Chisholm identified the following cultural themes that emerged in the use of computers:

These propositions are not intended to highlight cultural "deficiencies," but to highlight strengths. We are familiar with the literature that indicates the importance of using a variety of learning styles and teaching styles. The argument, however, is that education in the United States has tended to focus on learning styles for the Euro-centric students—competitive, inquiry-driven, and independent work. A vital caution—where we are standing on shaky ground—is in the "misapplication of learning style theories" (Nieto, 2000, p. 143). Nieto summarizes studies in which teachers made incorrect assumptions. For example, in one study, Flora Ida Ortiz indicated that teachers assumed Hispanic students would not want to assume leadership roles in the class activities; thus teachers did not provide the Hispanic students with opportunities they provided to non-Hispanic students. Nieto indicates there is particular promise with Howard Gardner's multiple intelligence theory "in challenging current assessment practices that focus almost exclusively on logical-mathematical and linguistic intelligence" (p. 144).

When Educational Technologists draw on literature and research from the field of psychology, more attention should be given to the unique aspects of psychological approaches such as Black Psychology (Jones, 1991) and the emerging Chicana Psychology (Flores-Ortiz, 1998). Akbar (1991) writes of the importance of considering Black psychological approaches:

Based on an extensive review of multicultural and diversity literature, Sleeter and Grant (1999) propose that there are five general approaches to multicultural education. Below is a general summary of their approaches.

1. The goal of the first approach, Teaching the Exceptional and The Culturally Different, is to assimilate marginalized students into the dominant/traditional culture. Curriculum and instruction focus on "teaching strategies that remediate deficiencies or build bridges between the student and the school" (Sleeter & Grant, p. 37); thus marginalized/subordinated students are often playing "catch up" to norms that are usually based on the Anglo-American male. Spring (1997) writes of the historical "deculturalization" of assimilation models.
2. The Human Relations approach promotes positive feelings to "reduce stereotyping, thus promoting unity and tolerance in a society composed of different people" (Sleeter & Grant, p. 76). Tolerance is exemplified in the cultural sensitivity workshops in workplaces. Cooperative learning techniques are promoted as instructional strategies, but the curriculum does not significantly change. One of the outcomes of this approach is that teachers unfortunately treat only the symptoms of inequalities: "the name calling, stereotyping, and prejudice" (Sleeter & Grant, p. 103).
3. In the Single-Group Studies approach the educator/teacher focuses on empowering a specific group. This is illustrated in programs such as women studies, gay and lesbian studies, or ethnic studies (including African-American studies/Black Studies, American Indians, Hispanic/Latinos, Asian Americans). Advocates of this approach argue that curriculum is not neutral, but reflects and reinforces the values of the dominant group. They seek to relieve oppression through "accurate" education of history and knowledge of current oppressions. Instructional strategies include culturally relevant teaching (Ladson-Billings, 1994) and feminist pedagogy. Single-Group Studies are often seen as an add-on approach to the regular curriculum which remains focussed on the dominant group, usually male, Euro-American.
4. Multicultural Education tends to focus on race and gender, rejects assimilation, and promotes cultural pluralism. This approach focuses less on social class, disability, or gay and lesbian issues. Instructional strategies include building on learner curiosity, individual learning styles, learners conceptual schemes (as expressed by Ausubel), and cooperative learning.
5. Education that is Multicultural and Social Reconstructionist is an approach that also promotes cultural pluralism—along with democratic ideals to reconstruct society for equality. Social action is an integral component of education; the ideas of Freire, Shor, Giroux, and Dewey are central. As often discussed by Freire and Shor, the "students become subjects rather than objects in the classroom" and learn to "direct their own learning and to do so responsibly, rather than always being directed by someone else" (Sleeter & Grant, p. 201). This approach rejects the "banking" approach to education (students are not objects for the teacher to simply "deposit" information) and fosters a critical dialogue approach for social change.

Ramon Flecha (1999) explains changes over the past few decades that have transformed Europe from a continent of emigration to one of increasing immigration. He details the struggles of subordinated groups in Europe, particularly Spain, and contrasts Modern Racism to Postmodern Racism. While the inequalities of Modern Racism are "generated primarily by ethnocentric beliefs" and Western universalism (p. 151), Postmodern Racism argues against inequalities and for "difference" or cultural relativism (Lyotard, Foucault, Derrida). Flecha indicates, though, the denial in a postmodern racist perspective of "the possibilities of dialogue between different cultures in order to establish common rules for living together in the same territories" (p. 159). He describes that "Difference does not mean equal" is the foundation of a postmodern racist perspective (p. 159).

Flecha locates the most promising conditions for a non-racist, multicultural education in the Critical Dialogic approach (Freire, Habermas) that "emphasizes the need for equal rights among ethnicities as well as among diverse social sectors and people. . .difference is simply part of equality—the equal right of everybody to live differently" (p. 164). Further, this approach seeks to create "conditions for people from different cultures and ethnicities to live together" and to "extend and radicalize democracy" (p. 167). The Critical Dialogic approach is similar to Sleeter and Grant's fifth approach, Education that is Multicultural and Social Reconstructionist. Mechthild Hart (1992) also eloquently advocates the dialogue approach proposed by Habermas.

Vasquez and Wainstein (1990) claim there is relatively little literature for college faculty that provides "practical strategies for instructing minority students. . .Many minority students fail in school not because they are culturally different but because faculty members are unprepared to recognize their cultural distinctiveness as strengths" (p. 608). Bartolome (1994) writes that her graduate students seem to have a "methods fetish" as they "imbue the 'new' methods with almost magical properties that render them, in and of themselves, capable of improving students' academic standing" (p. 176). In citing critical theorists such as Giroux, Freire, and Anyon, she explains the need for humanizing pedagogy to "create learning environments informed by action and reflection" (p. 177). Bartolome proposes two promising instructional models that enable subordinated "students to move from object to subject position" (p. 177):

• Culturally responsive instruction "attributes the academic difficulties of students from subordinated groups to cultural incongruence or discontinuities between the learning, language use, and behavioral practices found in the home and those expected by the schools" (p. 183). Teachers must "learn to listen, learn from, and mentor their students" (p. 189). One illustration of cultural incongruence that teachers must confront is providing explicit directions to students. Euro-centric teachers sometimes provide orders in an indirect, question format. In African-American homes, however, a more direct approach is often used. An African-American student may perceive a direction that is formatted as a question to actually be a question, not a request for action. Refer to Delpit's (1988) work for an excellent illustration.
• Strategic Teaching "refers to an instructional model that explicitly teaches students learning strategies that enable them consciously to monitor their own learning. . .through the development of reflective cognitive monitoring and metacognitive skills" (p. 186). Frames and graphic organizers are examples of learning strategies.

Cooperative Learning is an essential method in designing multicultural education. This is not group work in which the teacher simply arranges students in a group, provides a topic, and issues the direction to "discuss." Johnson and Johnson (1994) define cooperative learning as "the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other's learning" (p. 61). They indicate that cooperative learning is much more than discussing, helping, and sharing. The five elements essential to cooperative learning are:

• Positive interdependence. Group members fulfill roles (reader, checker, encourager) and must reach consensus.
• Face-to-face promotive interaction. Students discuss, teach, and explain to each other in promotive ways that "assist, encourage, and support each other's efforts to learn" (p. 64).
• Individual accountability. Students are assessed individually. This ensures that each person is doing their "fair share of the work" (p. 71).
• Social skills. Students also must learn social skills necessary to work with others: "leadership, decision-making, trust-building, communication, and conflict-management skills" (p. 64).
• Groups process their effectiveness. The group discusses their progress and provides feedback as to what each person contributed and where each person can improve. Smith (1982) refers to this as a "diagnostic attitude toward processes" (p. 107).

Sleeter and Grant (1999) highlight models of cooperative learning such as the group investigation model, the jigsaw model, and the team games model. Crook (1994) and Gonzalez-Edfelt (1994) discuss how to foster collaborative learning for students while using computers.

A conclusion to this paper at this point would be artificial. Based on the fluidity of the issues surrounding diversity and feminism, discussions of diversity and feminism in IT are complex, political, unsettling, and reflective. Issues of diversity, feminism, and multicultural education within ET/IT are rarely discussed in detail. Some may view the issues as related more to curriculum design than instruction. Others may welcome some of the ideas to prepare an instructional context for diverse education. Some feminist theories and multicultural education approaches challenge the notion that education has ever been, is now, or ever can be—neutral.

At this point, we invite the members of the ITFORUM listserv to consider the diversity of their teaching/instruction, instructional design, software, training programs, or materials. As you consider these ideas, we suggest a unique collaboration among the listserv members to develop a list of strategies for incorporating feminism and/or multicultural pedagogies into the theories and practices of ET/IT. We envision a list that will inform current and future Instructional Designers (graduate students, K-12 teachers, higher education instructors/professors, software designers/developers, etc.). We invite postings regarding possible strategies and at the end of the discussion week, we will summarize the list of suggested strategies as the "ITFORUM Strategies for Diversity and Multicultural Education."

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